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- In the earliest days of flight, navigational aids were very
- basic. They consisted of a map, a compass, a clock and the
- pilot's own two eyes. Before takeoff, the pilot plotted his
- course (his intended direction) by drawing a line on a map from
- his point of origin to his desired destination. He planned his
- route and then noted the various landmarks, such as railway
- lines, lakes and mountains. During his flight, he could
- establish his position at any time simply by comparing the
- features of the map with his own observation of the ground.
- However, he could only calculate his speed after the flight, by
- noting the amount of time the plane was in the air.
-
- As aircraft began to fly higher, faster, farther and in more
- difficult conditions than ever before, such simple aids were
- clearly inadequate. How, for example, could a pilot estimate his
- height, speed and position at night or in dense clouds? Such
- difficulties were gradually overcome by the introduction of more
- reliable techniques and more efficient electronic devices.
- Today, such aids form the basis of modern air navigation.
-
- Weather forecasts, data about the aircraft's performance
- capability, and maps showing the geographical features along the
- route all help the navigator to work out the various aspects of
- the flight even before take off. For example, meteorological
- information about wind speeds will indicate how much the
- aircraft will tend to drift off course. To compensate for this
- drift, the aircraft will need to fly to a certain compass
- heading which will not correspond to the desired course. This
- heading will be either left or right of the track, depending on
- the direction of the wind. (See figures 3 and 4.) In the absence
- of any strong cross-wind, the course, the heading and the track
- will naturally be the same.
-
- During flight, not only the windspeed but also the airspeed and
- the groundspeed must be checked constantly. Airspeed, shown on
- an instrument called the airspeed indicator (ASI), is the actual
- speed of the aircraft relative to the surrounding air. The ASI
- reading is obtained by a device which measures the difference
- between static air pressure and the dynamic air pressure caused
- by the motion of the aircraft. Groundspeed is the aircraft's
- speed relative to the ground. It can only be calculated once the
- airspeed and wind direction and speed are known. The difference
- between airspeed and groundspeed can be shown by a simple
- example. If a plane is moving at a speed of 120 m.p.h. and there
- is no wind, then groundspeed and airspeed will both be 120
- m.p.h. If there is a 20 m.p.h. tail wind (i.e., blowing from
- behind) and an airspeed of 120 m.p.h. is maintained, then the
- groundspeed will increase to 140 m.p.h. If there is a 20 m.p.h.
- head wind, the groundspeed will decrease to 100 m.p.h.
- Naturally, these calculations become more complicated when the
- wind is blowing against the plane at an angle.
-
- The height of an aircraft above sea level, i.e., its altitude,
- is indicated on the altimeter. This device is basically a
- barometer whose measurements of atmospheric pressure are
- converted into altitude readings. By a simple adjustment, it can
- also give readings of the aircraft's height (i.e., above ground
- level). Ground level readings are additionally supplied by the
- radio altimeter, a device that measures the time taken for a
- transmitted signal to return to the aircraft after hitting the
- ground. These readings, however, are only reliable over
- relatively flat surfaces.
-
- A few other essential instruments used by air navigators should
- also be mentioned. (See Figure 1.) The artificial horizon IA/H)
- shows the relation between the earth's horizon and the
- aircraft's own horizontal axis. The turn coordinator shows the
- direction in which the aircraft is turning, whether left or
- right. The directional gyro is set to the magnetic compass and
- shows the plane's heading. Finally, the vertical speed indicator
- tells the pilot at what rate, in feet per minute, he is climbing
- or descending.
-
- Modern electronic aids also enable the pilot or navigator to
- calculate the aircraft's position at any time during flight.
- Such aids may be dependent on signals sent from a network of
- ground stations, or they may be completely self-contained in the
- aircraft. An example of the latter system is INS, the Inertial
- Navigation System. It was originally developed by the American
- space programme, but is now commonly used by civil aircraft such
- as Concorde and jumbo jets. The system operates with
- accelerometers and gyroscopes that are able to measure even the
- slightest change of motion in the aircraft. Before take off, the
- aircraft's coordinates, i.e., its exact latitude and longitude,
- are fed into a computer which is then able to provide the
- navigator with his exact position at any time.
-
- The INS stands in great contrast to the simple navigational
- methods of the first pioneers of flight. It is very probable
- that even more advanced technologies will be developed to aid,
- or maybe eventually to replace, the pilot and navigator of the
- future.
-